10. Nigeria – data relate only to 23 out of 26 national research institutes under the Federal Ministry of Science and Technology

11. Pakistan – humanities and social sciences in the higher education and general service sectors and not included. Not including Military and Defense R&D.

12. Israel – not including data for humanities and law financed by the universities current budgets.

13. Philippines – not including private non-profit organizations in 1980.

14. Available data for various years for different countries are reported.

15. Conversion of national currency into US $ is based on Statistical Yearbooks (1998), UNESCO.

Table 2 depicts the national expenditure on Research and Development (R&D) at current prices for selected countries – both developed and developing. The Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), established in 1942, had no independent laboratories worth mentioning till Independence, but by the 1950s, a network of fifteen national laboratories in the physical, chemical, engineering and biological sciences was created chiefly due to the efforts of Bhatnagar and the support he received from Nehru. This development is known as the “Nehru-Bhatnagar effect”. By 1997, there were about thirty-five national laboratories under the umbrella of CSIR involved in various S&T areas. From a small number of 100 R&D personnel in 1947, the CSIR had grown to 2,000 in the 1960s and to 6,000 in the 1980s.