Ethnocentrism and group closure frequently go together. Closure refers to the process whereby groups maintain boundaries separating themselves from others. These boundaries are formed by means of exclusion devices, which sharpen the divisions between one ethnic group and another. Such devices include limiting or prohibiting intermarriage between the groups, restrictions on social contact or economic relationships like trading, and the physical separation of groups (as in the case of ethnic ghettos).

Sometimes groups of equal power mutually enforce lines of closure: their members keep separate from each other, but neither group dominates the other. More commonly, however, one ethnic group occupies position of power over another. In these circumstances, group closure coincides with resource allocation, instituting inequalities in the distribution of wealth and material goods.

Some of the fiercest conflicts between ethnic groups centre on the lines of closure between them precisely because these lines signal inequalities in wealth, power or social standing. The concept of ethnic group closure helps us understand both the dramatic and the more insidious differences that separate communities of people from one another – not just why the members of some groups get shot, lynched, beaten up or harassed, but also why they do not get good jobs, a good education or a desirable place to live. Wealth, power and social status are scarce resources – some groups have more of them than others. To hold on to their distinctive positions, privileged groups sometimes undertake extreme acts of violence against others. Similarly, members of underprivileged groups may also turn to violence as a means of trying to improve their own situation.

Conflict Theories

Some scholars have attempted to locate racism within the general culture of society, arguing that it is a type of natural conservatism which emerges in times of change and instability. Cultural explanations have seen racism as a type of defence against the introduction of new customs, languages and lifestyles that threaten the existing order (Cashmore 1987). Yet such arguments are somewhat unsatisfactory, because they fail to explain how racism relates to structures and forces at the level of society, rather than that of the individual.

Conflict theories, by contrast, are concerned with the links between racism and prejudice on the one hand, and relationships of power and inequality on the other. Early conflict approaches to racism were heavily influenced by Marxist ideas which saw the economic system as the determining factor for all other aspects of society. Some Marxist theorists held that racism was a product of the capitalist system, arguing that the ruling class used slavery, colonization and racism as tools for exploiting labour (Cox 1959).

Later neo-Marxist scholars saw these early formulations as too rigid and simplistic and suggested that racism was not the product of economic forces alone. A set of articles published in 1982 by the Birmingham Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies, The Empire Strikes Back, takes a broader view of the rise of racism. While agreeing that the capitalist exploitation of labour is one factor, John Solomos, Paul Gilroy and others point to a variety of historical and political influences which led to the emergence of a specific brand of racism in Britain in the 1970s and 1980s. They argue that racism is a complex and multifaceted phenomenon involving the interplay of ethnic minority and working-class identities and beliefs. In their eyes, racism is much more than simply a set of oppressive ideas enacted against the non-white population by powerful elites (Hall et al. 1982).

References

Adorno, Theodor W. et al. 1950. The Authoritarian Personality. New York: Harper and Row.

Barker, Martin. 1981. The New Racism: Conservatives and the Ideology og the Tribe. Frederick Md: University Publication of America.

Cashmere, E. Ellis.1987. The Logic of Racism. London: Allen and Unwin.

Cox, Oliver C. 1959. Class, Caste and Race: A Study in Social Dynamics. New York: Monthly Review Press.

Hall, Stuart et al. 1982. The Empire Strikes Back. London: Hutchinson.

Gobineau, J. 1856. "Moral and intellectual diversity of races." J.B.Lippincott & Co, Philadelphia.

Modood, Tariq et al.1997. Ethnic Minorities in Britain: Diversty and Disadvantage. London: Policy Studies Institute.

Giddens, Anthoney. 2010. Sociology. Oxford: Polity.