The process by which understandings of race are used to classify individuals or groups of people is called racialization. Historically, racialization meant that certain groups of people came to be labelled as constituting distinct biological groups on the basis of naturally occurring physical features (as in the ideas set forth by de Gobineau). During the period of history from the 15th century onwards, as Europeans came into increased contact with people from different regions of the world, attempts were made to systematize knowledge by categorizing and explaining both natural and social phenomena. Non-European populations were ‘racialized’ in opposition to the European ‘white race’. In some instances this racialization took on ‘codified’ institutional forms, as in the case of slavery in the American colonies and apartheid in South Africa. More commonly, however, everyday social institutions became racialized in a de facto manner. Within a racialized system, aspects of individuals’ daily lives – including employment, personal relations, housing, healthcare, education and legal representation – are shaped and constrained by their own racialized positions within that system.

Ethnicity

While the idea of race mistakenly implies something fixed and biological, ‘ethnicity’ is a concept that is purely social in meaning. Ethnicity refers to the cultural practices and outlooks of a given community of people that set them apart from others. Members of ethnic groups see themselves as culturally distinct from other groups in a society, and are seen by those other groups to be so in return. Different characteristics may serve to distinguish ethnic groups from one another, but the most usual are language, history or ancestry (real or imagined), religion and styles of dress or adornment. Ethnic differences are wholly learnt, a point that seems self-evident until we remember how often some groups have been regarded as ‘born to rule’ or ‘shiftless’, ‘unintelligent’, and so forth. In fact, there is nothing innate about ethnicity; it is a purely social phenomenon that is produced and reproduced over time. Through socialization, young people assimilate the lifestyles, norms and beliefs of their communities.

For many people ethnicity is central to individual and group identity. It can provide an important thread of continuity with the past and is often kept alive through the practice of cultural traditions. Sociologists often favour the term ‘ethnicity’ because it is a concept that is completely social in meaning. However, references to ethnicity and ethnic differences can be problematic, especially if they suggest contrast with a ‘non-ethnic’ norm. The broader term ‘ethnic’ is applied to realms as diverse as cuisine, clothing, music and neighbourhoods to designate practise that are ‘non-indigenous’. Using ethnic labels in this collective manner risks producing divisions between ‘us’ and ‘them’, where certain parts of the population are seen as ‘ethnic’ and others are not. In fact, ethnicity is an attribute possessed by all members of a population, not merely certain segments of it. Yet, as we shall discuss, in practice ethnicity is most often associated with minority groups within a population.

Minority Groups

The notion of minority groups (often ethnic minorities) is widely used in sociology and is more than a merely numerical distinction. In sociology, members of a minority group are disadvantaged as compared with the majority population and have some sense of group solidarity, of belonging together. The experience of being the subject of prejudice and discrimination usually heightens feelings of common loyalty and interests.