Value-Added Theory (1960s)

The value-added theory of collective behaviour determines whether or not collective behavior will occur. The theory argues that a specific combination of determinants facilitates and promotes collective outcomes and behaviors. The determinants of collective behavior form a value-added process. Value-added processes, which originated in the field of economic theory, refer to processes in which additional value is created at a particular stage of development or production. According to Knottnerus (1983), the value-added theory asserts that determinants to collective behavior combine according to a predictable pattern. Collective behavior requires the appearance of the determinants in a logical and predictable order; specifically, the theory asserts that six social conditions or “determinants are required for the development of a social movement: structural conduciveness, structural strain, generalized beliefs, precipitating factors, mobilization of participants, and social control”.

• Structured conduciveness refers to a social situation that permits or encourages some type of collective behaviour.
• Structural strain refers to a situation in which some type of deprivation exists.
• Growth and spread of a generalized belief refers to a belief that makes the situation meaningful to actors by identifying the possible source of strain, attributing characteristics to the source, and articulating possible responses to the strain.
• Precipitating factors refers to an act that confirms a generalized belief or exaggerates the condition of strain.
• Mobilization of participants for action refers to bringing the affected group into action.
• Operation of social control refers to the counter-determinants that prevent, defect, or inhibit the accumulation of the previous determinants (Knottnerus, 1983, p. 390).
• In the value-added theory of collective behavior, four components are said to account for social behavior: situational facilities, roles, norms, and values.
• Situational facilities refer to the means and resources used to attain goads in an organization or role.
• Roles refer to the expected behavior of a person in a social situation.
• Norms refer to the rules governing the pursuit of goals.
• Values refer to the goals or ends of social action.

These four components are ordered hierarchically. Value-added theory asserts that values, followed by norms, roles, and facilities, are the most important factor influencing social behavior and collective action. Values in this scheme are the foundation for social system integration and institutionalized action (Knottnerus 1983: 390).Value-added theory explains how grievances turn into generalized beliefs and then into social movements (Arthur 2005). Value added theory, also referred to as social strain theory, is part of a larger body of theory called strain theory. Strain refers to the cycle of inadequate regulation at the societal level that negatively impacts how the individual perceives his or her needs, means, and opportunities. Value-added theory of collective behavior argues that individuals join hostile and radical social movements because they experience social strain. Social movements develop to reassure members that action is being taken to address strain, grievances, and deprivation (Weeber & Rodeheaver, 2003).The value-added theory of collective behavior can be used to understand all variations in collective behavior. According to Lewis (1972), the determinants of collective behavior, structural conduciveness, structural strain, growth of a generalized hostile belief, mobilization of participants for action and operation of social control, take into account a vast range of scenarios that may result in collective behavior such as social movements. While value-added theory explains all types of collective behavior, value-added theory is particularly suited to analyzing and possibly predicting collective hostile outbursts. Hostile outbursts, a form of collective action often a precursor to social movement, refer to the act of mobilization for action under a hostile belief. The spread of hostile outbursts is understood in two main ways: Real and derived phases. The real phase of a collective hostile outburst forms in response to the accumulation of unfavorable conditions prior to the beginning of the hostile outburst. The derived phase of a collective hostile outburst includes divide between the hostility and the conditions that caused the outburst (Lewis, 1972).