Understanding corruption

Corruption is a complex and multifaceted phenomenon with multiple causes and effects, as it takes on various forms and functions in different contexts. The phenomenon of corruption ranges from the single act of a payment contradicted by law to an endemic malfunction of a political and economic system. The problem of corruption has been seen either as a structural problem of politics or economics, or as a cultural and individual moral problem. The definition of corruption consequently ranges from the broad terms of “misuse of public power” and “moral decay” to strict legal definitions of corruption as an act of bribery involving a public servant and a transfer of tangible resources. Corruption in simple terms may be described as “an act of bribery”. It has also been described as “the use of public power of private profits in a way that constitutes a breach of law or a deviation from the norms of society”. Corruption is most commonly defined as the misuse or the abuse of public office for private gain (WorldBank, 1997, UNDP, 1999). In Colin Nye's classical definition, corruption is “ behaviour that deviates from the formal duties of a public role (elective or appointive) because of private-regarding (personal, close family, private clique) wealth or status gains “ (Nye 1967:416). An updated version with the same elements is the definition by Mushtaq Khan, who says corruption is “ behaviour that deviates from the formal rules of conduct governing the actions of someone in a position of public authority because of private-regarding motives such as wealth, power, or status ” (Khan 1996:12). Samuel Huntington noted that where political opportunities are scarce, corruption occurs as people use wealth to buy power, and where economic opportunities are few, corruption occurs when political power is used to pursue wealth (Huntington 1968). According to Machael, 1983, has observed that “corruption is behaviour which is deviance from norms and duties governing the exercise of public role or office for private gains”. this private gain is achieved by ignoring prohibitions against certain acts, by exercising legitimate discretion to act, or by fulfilling obligations to act. By looking at the different kinds of resources transferred, a distinction has been made between corruption in economic terms and corruption in social terms. Economic corruption takes place in a market-like situation and entails an exchange of cash or material goods, which is basic to corruption. This is a strict definition of corruption, reflected in the regulations that stipulate limits to what amounts can be “given” before it is considered a bribe. Transfers are not only in cash or other tangibles, however, and the exchange takes place in a social setting with a number of cultural and moral meanings. Corruption understood in these broader terms has been called “social exchange” and social corruption. Social corruption is conventionally understood as an integrated element of clientelism. Clientelism often implies an exchange of material benefits but cannot be reduced to this, because clientelism has a wider cultural and social implication. Clientelism, nepotism, ethnic and other favouritism are all variants of corruption, in social terms (Médard 1998:308). Given a definition of corruption as a particular state-society relationship, the genesis of corruption is consequently found at the two fields of interaction between the state and the society beyond it, namely at the national and the international arena. Besides, it takes place within the state itself, between its various layers or levels.