Individual and universal happiness

Some utilitarians see a conflict between individual hedonism and universalistic hedonism. This is an everyday experience that what promotes individual happiness may often be in conflict with the happiness of the larger society or mankind. Likewise whatever is needed for the happiness of mankind may often make some individuals unhappy. Yet, in any case utilitarians evaluate an action in terms of its consequences or a rule in terms of its consequences for greatest happiness of greatest number. For utilitarians, laws must be based on rational and empirical grounds, and examined on the basis of their consequences for human welfare. Kant proposed the “deontological systems” according to which one is expected to focus on means rather than ends and do right things irrespective of what their consequences are. In India Gandhi said something very similar to this position. Deontologists said that one should act from a sense of duty, which is determined by reference to rationality.

No wonder while some utilitarians give more importance to rules, some others give more importance to action or motives. Sometimes it may be necessary to break a rule, making it an exception for maximization of utility. Moreover, to judge an action’s worth one may also look into the motive with which the act is performed. Some philosophers use this point as a criticism of utilitarianism and argue that the worth of an action should not be judged on the basis of its consequences for maximization of utility but by the intentions behind the act.