When Ulf Hannerz’s (1969) study of the inner-city ghetto was published it showed that while to the outside observer the densely populated inner-city neighbourhoods seemed chaotic, on close inspection it was found that order was created out of urban chaos by city residents.

The works of Herbert Gans and Oscar Lewis also contributed to the compositional school. They draw our attention to the ‘mosaic of social worlds’ that exist in urban areas. These ‘worlds’ are intimate social circles based on kinship, ethnicity, neighbourhood, occupation etc. They are exemplified by enclaves such as immigrant neighbourhoods (Little Italy) or upper-class gated communities. While the Chicago school argued that urbanism weakens small, primary groups, the compositional theorists maintain that these groups persist undiminished in the city.